Tag Archives: Procedural rhetoric

DiGRAA paper, 29-30 June 2016 (abstract)

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URL: DiGRAA [http://digraa.org/2015-digra-australia-conference/]

Title: Algorithms Pushed Me to the Dark Side: Questions for Procedural Rhetoric

ABSTRACT

Ian Bogost’s concept of procedural rhetoric is a tantalising theory of the power and potential of computer games, especially serious games. Yet does this concept really distinguish games from other media? Can this concept be usefully applied to the design and critique of serious games? This paper explores the ramifications of games (particularly serious games) as procedural rhetoric and whether this concept is problematic, useful, inclusive, or better employed as a recalibrated meta-epistemic theory of serious games that persuade or suggest to the player that the game mechanics, game genre, or digitally simulated world-view is open to criticism and reflection.

Keywords

Gamification, procedural rhetoric, game theory.

INTRODUCTION

While Michael Mateas has spoken of procedural literacy, and before him Janet Murray noted one feature of digital games was their procedural nature, Ian Bogost is probably most famously associated with this phrase. Ian Bogost (Bogost 2007) defined procedural rhetoric as ‘a practice of using processes persuasively.’ While procedural rhetoric combines a humanities discipline with something that is obviously a key component of games, I have reservations. Bogost himself raised the first potential flaw; he admitted that for many people rhetoric has a negative connotation. In the book Arguing well, John Shand (Shand 2002) declared ‘Logic must be sharply distinguished from what might generally be called rhetoric… rhetoric is not committed to using good arguments.’

I am not convinced that the rules of the game are the rules of the designer or even the rules of the player. The negotiation, changes, and misunderstandings as to what are the rules exactly are, by the player, is in my opinion an important and creative part of games, and by extension, computer games. While it might be reasonable to think that if the essence of the game is rules, it is another thing entirely to not even contemplate the possibility that a rule-based system could be random, changing, or open to change by the player. For example, Mary Flanagan (Flanagan 2013) looked at critical game play as wilful subversion of the rules and she provided avant-garde art as exemplars.

While Bogost seems to be saying we have to understand procedural rhetoric, astute critics and game designers do not seem sure as to how they can implement these theoretical notions. In an otherwise complementary review of Unit Operations, Zach Whalen (Whalen 2006) wrote ‘I’m eager to try my own hand at unit analysis, but I’m not sure how to proceed.’

Miguel Sicart (Sicart 2011) wrote, ‘Proceduralists claim that players, by reconstructing the meaning embedded in the rules, are persuaded by virtue of the games’ procedural nature.’ Sicart argued that meaning is more than just the learning of rules through play, the value of gameplay becomes subservient, and if rules are all that matter why should the designers have to explain them?

Computers follow procedure, and designers design procedures, (although Bogost carefully explained the term procedural rhetoric is not referring directly to programming). So how does or how can the player know that the system of rules that they (may have) a mental model of is the system of rules intended by the designer or the system of rules followed by the computer? And just because computers work by computation, by processing, does that mean the definition, the essence and the ideal of game-play is to follow and comprehend that system of rules?

Adherence to the altar of ‘procedural rhetoric’, whether intended by Bogost, or not, can lead to people thinking that the designer’s idea of the game rules are what matters. If so we may be faced with debates invoking the ‘Intentional Fallacy’, and ‘death of the Author’ could be resurrected, only this time the debates would be over computer games, not literature. For rhetoric involves the art of persuading, not necessarily the art of opening up games as vehicles of critical discourse (Chaplin 2011).

Bogost used the example of the book Guns, Germs, and Steel, and declared ‘Such an approach to history goes far beyond the relation between contemporaneous events, asking us to consider the systems that produce those events.’ Should the player be led to ‘consider the system that produce those events’ as well? Must the theory really force the player to consider the overall system, or is this statement dangerously close to the coercion-by-play approach of gamification? For gamification is a phenomenon that Bogost has excoriated (Bogost 2011).

In this presentation I will explore whether gamification and procedural rhetoric really are as different as Bogost appears to believe, and whether procedural rhetoric runs the risk of creating what Bogost has termed ‘exploitationware’ (see also (Bogost 2013)). To help in this quest, I suggest that a theory should be falsifiable (if possible); it should eliminate other fields the theory also applies to, and explain if it is prescriptive or descriptive. It should avoid similar terms with overlapping meanings or conflicting connotations as the overall name for the theory. Given these general guidelines, we should approach the term procedural rhetoric with caution.

Bio

Erik Champion is Professor of Cultural Visualization at Curtin University, and researches virtual heritage, but he also writes on game design, virtual places, architectural computing and interaction design. His recent books are Playing with the Past (Springer, 2011), and he edited book Game Mods: Design, Theory and Criticism (ETC Press, 2012). His next book Critical Gaming and Digital Humanities will be published in the Ashgate Publishing Group’s Digital Humanities Series.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bogost, I. (2007). Persuasive games: The expressive power of videogames. Massachusetts, USA, MIT Press.

Bogost, I. (2011) “Gamification Is Bullshit.” The Atlantic.

Bogost, I. (2013). “Preview: Why Gamification Is Bullshit.” from http://bogost.com/writing/blog/preview_why_gamification_is_bu/.

Chaplin, H. (2011) “I Don’t Want To Be a Superhero-Ditching reality for a game isn’t as fun as it sounds.” Slate, Online.

Flanagan, M. (2013). Critical Play Radical Game Design. Cambridge MA, The MIT Press.

Shand, J. (2002). Arguing well. London, Routledge.

Sicart, M. (2011) “Against Procedurality.” Game Studies the international journal of computer game research 11, online.

Whalen, Z. (2006). “Review of Bogost, Ian. Unit Operations: An Approach to Videogame Criticism.” gameology: A scholarly community dedicated to the study of videogames http://www.gameology.org/node/1066 Accessed 7 April 2014.

“Critical Gaming: Interactive History and Virtual Heritage” Ashgate Digital Research in the Arts and Humanities series

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I have written Critical Gaming: Interactive History And Virtual Heritage (Ashgate Publishing, Digital Research in the Arts and Humanities series ), it has now gone to their production team and I hope it will be published roughly mid 2015.

Introduction: Critical Gaming: Interactive History And Virtual Heritage can be seen as a collection of chapters designed to provoke thought and discussion, or it can be seen and used as separate chapters that may help class debate in courses dealing with the Digital Humanities, Game Studies (especially in the areas of Serious Games and Game-based Learning), or aspects of Virtual Heritage. While there are very few books in this intersecting area, the range of topics that could be investigated and debated is huge. My primary target groups of readers are those academics and students who wish to investigate how games and virtual environments can be used in teaching and research to critique issues and topics in the humanities. In particular I want to investigate re-occurring broad issues in the design, playtesting and evaluation of serious games/ playful learning/game-based learning for interactive history and for virtual heritage.

Chapter 1: Digital Humanities And The Limits of Text provides a reasoned argument for the preponderance of text-based research in the digital humanities but argues for the importance and relevance of non-text based projects and three-dimensional media that augments rather than replaces text. It also proposes ways of improving classroom knowledge via spatial media.

Chapter 2: Game-based Learning And The Digital Humanities asks if there should there be a manifesto and singular definition of ‘game’? Should we be more open-minded in defining games and applying them totally or in part to historical and heritage-based simulations? Do definitions of ‘games as systems’ or as ‘procedural rhetoric’ offer enough guidance in developing and evaluating historical simulations and virtual heritage projects? In answering this question, the chapter includes suggestions gleaned from three case studies.

Chapter 3: Virtual Heritage focuses on intersections between Virtual Reality, Games and Digital Humanities. Is Virtual Reality still relevant? I argue that the increasing power and superior accessibility of computer games has already absorbed much of traditional Virtual Reality. Has Virtual Reality merged into games, is Virtual Reality within the financial and technical reach of non-expert users? If so which Virtual Reality techniques have become mainstream and accessible? What is the future of Virtual Reality and how will it affect Digital Humanities, are there specific areas we should focus on?

Chapter 4: Game-based History And Historical Simulations surveys games used for history and historical learning. Which theories can help us design and critique for history and heritage-based projects? Serious games research typically use modified computer games as virtual learning environments. Virtual heritage projects typically aim to provide three-dimensional interactive digital environments that aid the understanding of new cultures and languages rather than merely transfer learning terms and strategies from static prescriptive media such as books. As an intersection between the two fields, game-based historical learning aims to provide ways in which the technology, interactivity, or cultural conventions of computer gaming can help afford the cultural understanding of the self, of the past, or of others with mindsets quite different to our own.

Chapter 5: Virtual Heritage And Digital Culture covers definitions and major issues in Virtual Heritage. I propose six general aims for virtual heritage and I suggest three key concepts, inhabited placemaking, cultural presence and cultural significance. I also suggest objectives that a scholarly infrastructure should undertake to improve the field.

Chapter 6: Worlds, Roles And Rituals explores the nature, purpose and attributes of worlds, role-playing and rituals. Why are definitions of world so difficult to find? How can worlds be realised via digital simulations, can role-playing in computer games be developed further? Who should be able to read and interpret and perform rituals and why? Part of this chapter was initially published as an essay in the International Journal of Role Playing (Champion, 2009) and the passage has been considerably modified.

Chapter 7: Joysticks of Death, Violence And Morality is a theoretical attempt to outline types of violence in computer games and develop a short framework for types of interaction in virtual heritage projects. What is violence, how is it portrayed in games and are there particular issues in virtual simulations? This chapter sketches out both factors leading to violence in digital heritage projects and reasons involving their widespread occurrence. Finally I will suggest alternatives to violent interaction when applied to digital heritage projects.

Chapter 8: Intelligent Agents, Drama and Cinematic Narrative discusses Selmer Bringsjord’s ideas on interactive narrative and whether we can provide alternatives that help develop dramatically compelling interactive narrative. Why has storytelling been so difficult? Why is the Star Trek Holodeck so widely cited but no one has come close to building anything remotely similar?

Chapter 9: Biofeedback, Space And Place discusses ways in which biofeedback and brain controlled interfaces and theories of empathy and embodiment can be used to develop games and simulations for history and heritage based games. How can we better integrate new research into the body and the brain and recent technologies that incorporate the senses or further integrate recent technologies with the environment?

Chapter 10: Applying Critical Thinking And Critical Play summarizes the arguments and findings of the chapters and proposes a quick way of validating critical theories about gaming. Can game-related projects and teaching leverage critical thinking skills? The chapter includes a sample checklist to determine whether a critical position and argument about gaming has merit.